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write anyway - he might answer you

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1 might

I
see academic.ru/45709/may">may
II noun
1) (force) Gewalt, die; (inner strength) Macht, die

with all one's might — mit aller Kraft

2) (power) Macht, die

might is right — Macht geht vor Recht

* * *
I
(-)

1) (past tense of may: I thought I might find you here; He might come if you offered him a meal.) pt. of may:können

2) (used instead of `may', eg to make a possibility seem less likely, or a request for permission more polite: He might win if he tries hard; Might I speak to you for a few minutes, please?) können

3) (used in suggesting that a person is not doing what he should: You might help me clean the car!) können

•

- might as well
- might have
- I might have known II
(power or strength: The might of the opposing army was too great for us.) die Macht

- mighty
- mightily
- mightiness
* * *

might¹

[maɪt]

I. pt of may

II. aux vb

1. (expressing possibility)

that old bridge \might be dangerous die alte Brücke könnte gefährlich sein

I \might go to the cinema tonight vielleicht gehe ich heute Abend ins Kino; (could)

someone phoned at six, it \might have been him um sechs rief jemand an, das könnte er gewesen sein; (will be able to)

he is closing his door so that he \might have a little peace and quiet er schließt seine Tür, damit er etwas Ruhe hat

let's not answer the phone so that we \might talk undisturbed lass uns nicht ans Telefon gehen, damit wir ungestört reden können; (expressing probability)

if he keeps studying so hard he \might even get a first in his final exams wenn er weiterhin so eifrig lernt, könnte er sogar der Beste bei den Abschlussprüfungen werden

2. (conceding a fact)

the village \might be in the middle of nowhere but I like such places das Dorf kann ruhig mitten im Nirgendwo sein, ich mag solche Orte

Leeds \might be an excellent team, but... Leeds mag eine hervorragende Mannschaft sein, aber...

3. esp BRIT ( form: polite form of may)

\might I...? dürfte ich [vielleicht]...?

\might I ask a question? dürfte ich eine Frage stellen?

how \might I help you? wie kann ich Ihnen behilflich sein?; (when offended)

\might I ask what you think you're doing in my seat? könnten Sie mir vielleicht sagen, was sie auf meinem Sitz zu suchen haben?

and who \might you be? und was glaubst du wohl, wer du bist?

4. ( form: making a suggestion)

\might I [or ( form) one] make a suggestion? dürfte ich vielleicht einen Vorschlag machen?

I thought you \might like to join me for dinner ich dachte, du hättest vielleicht Lust, mit mir zu Abend zu essen; (unenthusiastically)

she \might as well tell the truth — they'll find it out anyway sie könnte ebenso gut die Wahrheit sagen — sie werden es ohnehin herausfinden

5. (in reproach)

you \might have at least made an effort du hättest zumindest einen Versuch machen können

you \might have told me about the job! du hättest mir eigentlich von dem Job erzählen müssen!

I \might have known that you'd lie to me ich hätte es eigentlich wissen müssen, dass du mich anlügen würdest

might²

[maɪt]

n no pl

1. (authority) Macht f

2. (strength) Kraft f; MIL Stärke f

with \might and main aus Leibeskräften

with all one's \might mit aller Kraft

3.

▶ \might is right ( saying) Macht geht vor Recht

* * *
I [maɪt] pret
they might be brothers, they look so alike — sie könnten Brüder sein, sie sehen sich so ähnlich

as you might expect — wie zu erwarten war

... I might add —... möchte ich hinzufügen
how old might he be? — wie alt er wohl ist?

might I smoke? — dürfte ich wohl rauchen?
you might try Smith's — Sie könnten es ja mal bei Smiths versuchen

he might at least have apologized — er hätte sich wenigstens entschuldigen können

I might have known — das hätte ich mir denken können

she was thinking of what might have been — sie dachte an das, was hätte sein können
II
n
Macht f
with all one's might — mit aller Kraft

superior might — Übermacht f, Überlegenheit f

might is right (Prov) — Macht geht vor Recht (Prov)

* * *

might¹ [maıt] s

1. Macht f, Gewalt f

2. Stärke f, Kraft f:

with might and main obs, with all one’s might mit aller Kraft oder Gewalt

might² [maıt] prät von may¹

may [meı], obs 2. sg präs mayst [meıst], 3. sg präs may, prät und optativ might [maıt] v irr (defektiv, meist Hilfsverb)

1. (Möglichkeit, Gelegenheit) können, mögen:

it may happen any time es kann jederzeit geschehen;

it might happen es könnte geschehen;

you may be right du magst recht haben, vielleicht hast du recht;

he may not come vielleicht kommt er nicht; es ist möglich, dass er nicht kommt;

come what may komme, was da wolle;

he might lose his way er könnte sich verirren

2. (Erlaubnis) dürfen, können:

you may go;

may I ask? darf ich fragen?;

I wish I might tell you ich wollte, ich dürfte es dir sagen; selten neg:

he may not do it er darf es nicht tun

3. mit (as) well, just as well:

you may well say so du hast gut reden;

we might as well go da können wir (auch) ebenso gut gehen, gehen wir schon;

he may as well dazu hat er auch allen Grund

4. ungewisse Frage:

how old may she be? wie alt mag sie wohl sein?;

I wondered what he might be doing ich fragte mich, was er wohl tue

5. (Wunschgedanke, Segenswunsch) mögen:

may God bless you!;

may it please your Grace Euer Gnaden mögen geruhen

6. als Aufforderung:

you may post this letter for me du kannst diesen Brief für mich einstecken;

you might help me du könntest mir (eigentlich) helfen;

you might at least offer to help du könntest wenigstens deine Hilfe anbieten

7. may oder might als Konjunktionsumschreibung: I shall write to him so that he may know our plans damit er unsere Pläne erfährt;

though it may cost a good deal obwohl es eine Menge kosten kann;

difficult as it may be so schwierig es auch sein mag;

we feared they might attack wir fürchteten, sie würden angreifen

8. JUR (in Verordnungen) können

* * *
I
see may
II noun
1) (force) Gewalt, die; (inner strength) Macht, die

with all one's might — mit aller Kraft

2) (power) Macht, die

might is right — Macht geht vor Recht

* * *

aux.

kann aux.

könnte aux.

mag aux. n.

Macht ¨-e f.

English-german dictionary > might
2 toujours

toujours [tuʒuʀ]

adverb

   a. ( = tout le temps) always

• je t'aimerai toujours I'll always love you

• il est toujours à or en train de critiquer (inf) he's always criticizing

• les jeunes veulent toujours plus d'indépendance young people want more and more independence

• comme toujours as always

• ce sont des amis de toujours they are lifelong friends

• il est parti pour toujours he's gone forever

• presque toujours almost always

   b. ( = encore) still

• bien qu'à la retraite il travaillait toujours although he had retired he was still working

• j'espère toujours qu'elle viendra I'm still hoping she'll come

• ils n'ont toujours pas répondu they still haven't replied

• est-ce que Louise est rentrée ? -- non elle est toujours à Paris/non toujours pas is Louise back? -- no, she's still in Paris/no not yet

• il est toujours aussi désagréable he's still as unpleasant as ever

   c. (intensif) anyway

• écrivez toujours, il vous répondra peut-être write anyway - he might answer you

• il vient toujours un moment où... there must come a time when...

• je trouverai toujours une excuse I can always think up an excuse

• vous pouvez toujours crier, il n'y a personne shout as much as you like - there's no-one about

• il était peut-être là, toujours est-il que je ne l'ai pas vu he may well have been around, but the fact remains that I didn't see him

• c'est toujours ça de pris (inf) that's something anyway

• ça peut toujours servir it might come in handy

* * *
tuʒuʀ
adverbe

1) (exprimant la continuité, la répétition) always

j'en rêve depuis toujours — I've always dreamed about it

de toujours — [ami] very old; [amitié] long-standing

toujours plus vite — faster and faster

des frais toujours plus importants — ever-increasing costs

2) ( encore) still

c'est toujours aussi difficile — it's still just as hard

3) ( de toute façon) anyway

viens toujours — come anyway

on peut toujours essayer — we can always try

cela peut toujours servir — it might come in handy

c'est toujours mieux que rien — it's still better than nothing

c'est toujours ça de pris or de gagné — that's something at least

toujours est-il que — the fact remains that

* * *
tuʒuʀ adv
1) (= tout le temps) always

Il est toujours très gentil. — He's always very nice.

pour toujours — forever

2) (= encore) still

Quand nous sommes revenus, il était toujours là. — When we got back he was still there.

3) (autres locutions)

depuis toujours — always

essaie toujours — try anyway

toujours est-il que — the fact remains that

toujours plus — more and more

* * *

toujours adv

1 ( exprimant la continuité) always; cela a toujours existé et existera toujours it always has existed and it always will; je t'aimerai toujours I'll always love you; ce n'est pas toujours vrai that is not always true; comme toujours as always; vouloir toujours plus always to want more; pour toujours forever; ils se connaissent depuis toujours they've known each other all their lives; j'en rêve depuis toujours I've always dreamed about it; de toujours [ami] very old; [amitié] long-standing; toujours plus vite faster and faster; toujours plus grand bigger and bigger; des frais toujours plus importants ever-increasing costs;

2 ( exprimant la répétition) always; il est toujours en retard he is always late; c'est toujours pareil it's always the same; ce n'est pas toujours évident it's not always obvious; toujours prêt à aider/critiquer always ready to help/criticize; vous serez toujours le bienvenu you're always welcome;

3 ( encore) still; il est toujours couché? is he still in bed?; il n'est toujours pas levé? is he still not up?; c'est toujours aussi difficile it's still just as hard;

4 ( de toute façon) anyway; viens toujours come anyway; on peut toujours essayer we can always try; cela peut toujours servir it might come in handy; c'est toujours mieux que rien it's still better than nothing; c'est toujours ça de pris or de gagné that's something at least; toujours est-il que the fact remains that.

[tuʒur] adverbe

1. [exprimant la continuité dans le temps] always

je l'ai toujours dit/cru I've always said/thought so

il est toujours à se plaindre he's always ou he never stops complaining

ils n'ont pas toujours été aussi riches they haven't always been so rich

ça ne durera pas toujours it won't last forever

le ciel toujours bleu the eternally blue sky

Sophie, toujours plus belle Sophie, ever more beautiful

toujours plus haut, toujours plus vite, toujours plus loin ever higher, ever faster, ever farther

ils sont toujours plus exigeants they are more and more demanding

2. [marquant la fréquence, la répétition] always

elle est toujours en retard she is always late

les erreurs ne sont pas toujours où on les attend mistakes sometimes occur where we least expect them

tu as toujours raison, enfin presque toujours you're always right, well, nearly always!

3. [encore] still

tu travailles toujours are you still working?

il fait toujours aussi chaud it is as hot as ever

tu es toujours aussi serviable! (ironique) you're just ou still as helpful as ever(, I see)!

toujours pas still not

ta leçon n'est toujours pas sue you still don't know your lesson

elle n'a toujours pas téléphoné she hasn't phoned yet, she still hasn't phoned

4. [dans des emplois expressifs]

tu peux toujours essayer you can always try, you might as well try

prends-le, tu peux toujours en avoir besoin take it, you may ou might need it (some day)

ça peut toujours servir it might come in handy ou useful

c'est toujours mieux que rien still, it's better than nothing

on trouvera toujours un moyen we're sure ou bound to find a way

tu peux toujours pleurer, je ne céderai pas (you can) cry as much as you like, I won't give in

tu lui fais confiance? — pas dans le travail, toujours! do you trust him? — not when it comes to work, anyway!

c'est toujours ça de pris that's something (at least)

————————

comme toujours locution adverbiale

as always, as ever

il a été charmant, comme toujours he was charming as always

————————

de toujours locution adjectivale

elle se retrouvait face à son public de toujours she found herself before her faithful audience of old

une amitié de toujours a lifelong friendship

————————

pour toujours locution adverbiale

forever

tu me le donnes pour toujours? can I keep it forever ou for good?

toujours est-il que locution conjonctive

the fact remains that

j'ignore pourquoi elle a refusé, toujours est-il que le projet tombe à l'eau I don't know why she refused, but the fact remains that the plan has had to be abandoned

Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > toujours
3 cualquiera

adj.

1 any.

a cualquier hora any time

en cualquier lugar anywhere

de cualquier manera o modo, no pienso ayudar I've no intention of helping, anyway o in any case

en cualquier momento at any time

cualquier día vendré a visitarte I'll drop by one of these days

no es un escritor cualquiera he's no ordinary writer

2 ordinary, common.

pron.

anyone.

cualquiera te lo dirá anyone will tell you

¡cualquiera lo sabe! who knows!

¡cualquiera se lo come! nobody could eat that!

cualquiera que anyone who; (persona) whatever (cosa)

cualquiera que te vea se reiría anyone who saw you would laugh

cualquiera que sea la razón whatever the reason (may be)

cualesquiera que sean las razones whatever the reasons (may be)

f.

tart (informal) (prostituta).

f. & m.

nobody (don nadie).

* * *

cualquiera

► adjetivo (pl cualesquiera)

1 (indefinido) any

■ un día cualquiera any day

■ una página cualquiera any page

2 (ordinario) ordinary

■ no es una corbata cualquiera it's not an ordinary tie

► pronombre

1 (persona indeterminada) anybody, anyone; (cosa indeterminada) any, any one

■ cualquiera lo compraría anybody would buy it

■ coge cualquiera take any one you want

2 (nadie) nobody

■ ¡cualquiera lo coge! nobody would take it!

► nombre masulino o femenino

1 peyorativo nobody

■ ser un cualquiera to be a nobody

► nombre femenino

1 peyorativo (prostituta) hussy, floozy, tart

2 cualquiera que (persona) whoever; (cosa) whatever, whichever

■ cualquiera que diga eso, miente whoever says that is lying

■ cualquiera que sea whatever it is

* * *
1. adj.
1) any

2) everyday, ordinary
2. pron.
1) anybody, anyone, whoever

2) whichever, whatever

* * *
I
adjetivo (pl cualesquiera or (crit) cualquiera) [see also note under cualquier] any

en cualquier momento — (at) any time

cualquier cosa/persona — anything/anyone

en cualquier lado — anywhere

de cualquier forma que se haga — whichever way you do it

de cualquier forma or manera te llamaré — I'll call you in any case

lo voy a hacer de cualquiera forma — I'm going to do it anyway

como cualquier día or como un día cualquiera — just like (on) any other day

uno cualquiera — any of them

es un mercenario cualquiera — he's nothing but a mercenary
II
pronombre (pl cualesquiera or (crit) cualquiera)

a) ( refiriéndose - a dos personas o cosas) either (of them); (- a más de dos cosas) any one; (- a más de dos personas) anybody, anyone

¿cuál de los dos? - cualquiera — which one? - either (of them)

pregúntaselo a cualquiera — ask anybody o anyone (you like)

¿puedo elegir cualquiera? — can I choose any one (I like)?

cualquiera que elijas estará bien — whichever (one) you choose o any one you choose will be fine

cualesquiera que hayan sido sus motivos — whatever his motives may have been

b) (iró) ( nadie)

a ti cualquiera te entiende! — I just don't understand you!

cualquiera sabe! — who knows!

cualquiera se atreve! — who would dare!
III
femenino (pey)

una cualquiera — a hussy, a floozy o (BrE) tart (colloq & pej)
IV
masculino

un cualquiera — a nobody

* * *

= anybody, anyone, anybody else.

Ex. An authority file that is not accessible to anybody is only a limited authority file.

Ex. Anyone using LC copy and the AACR is well aware of the stimulating challenges provided by superimposed headings.

Ex. On first thought, it might appear that an author would be the best person to write the abstract, since presumably he or she knows more about the paper than anybody else.

----

* acostarse con cualquiera = sleep around.

* al alcance de cualquiera = within anyone's reach, within anybody's reach.

* cualquiera que fuere = any... whatsoever.

* cualquiera que fuese = any... whatsoever.

* * *
I
adjetivo (pl cualesquiera or (crit) cualquiera) [see also note under cualquier] any

en cualquier momento — (at) any time

cualquier cosa/persona — anything/anyone

en cualquier lado — anywhere

de cualquier forma que se haga — whichever way you do it

de cualquier forma or manera te llamaré — I'll call you in any case

lo voy a hacer de cualquiera forma — I'm going to do it anyway

como cualquier día or como un día cualquiera — just like (on) any other day

uno cualquiera — any of them

es un mercenario cualquiera — he's nothing but a mercenary
II
pronombre (pl cualesquiera or (crit) cualquiera)

a) ( refiriéndose - a dos personas o cosas) either (of them); (- a más de dos cosas) any one; (- a más de dos personas) anybody, anyone

¿cuál de los dos? - cualquiera — which one? - either (of them)

pregúntaselo a cualquiera — ask anybody o anyone (you like)

¿puedo elegir cualquiera? — can I choose any one (I like)?

cualquiera que elijas estará bien — whichever (one) you choose o any one you choose will be fine

cualesquiera que hayan sido sus motivos — whatever his motives may have been

b) (iró) ( nadie)

a ti cualquiera te entiende! — I just don't understand you!

cualquiera sabe! — who knows!

cualquiera se atreve! — who would dare!
III
femenino (pey)

una cualquiera — a hussy, a floozy o (BrE) tart (colloq & pej)
IV
masculino

un cualquiera — a nobody

* * *

= anybody, anyone, anybody else.

Ex: An authority file that is not accessible to anybody is only a limited authority file.

Ex: Anyone using LC copy and the AACR is well aware of the stimulating challenges provided by superimposed headings.

Ex: On first thought, it might appear that an author would be the best person to write the abstract, since presumably he or she knows more about the paper than anybody else.

* acostarse con cualquiera = sleep around.

* al alcance de cualquiera = within anyone's reach, within anybody's reach.

* cualquiera que fuere = any... whatsoever.

* cualquiera que fuese = any... whatsoever.

* * *

cualquiera¹

adjective

(pl cualesquiera or

( crit) cualquiera) [ see also note under cualquier] any

a la altura de cualquier capital europea on a par with any European capital

en cualquier momento (at) any time

si ves cualquier cosa/persona que te resulte sospechosa if you see anything/anyone suspicious

ponlo en cualquier lado put it anywhere

de cualquier forma que se haga whichever way you do it

de cualquier forma or manera or modo te llamaré anyhow o anyway, I'll call you

lo voy a hacer de cualquier forma I'm going to do it anyway

vino a trabajar como cualquier día or como un día cualquiera he came to work just like (on) any other day

tráeme uno cualquiera bring me any of them o any one (at all)

son unos mercenarios cualesquiera they're nothing but mercenaries

cualquiera²

pronoun

(pl cualesquiera or ( crit) cualquiera)

1 (refiriéndose — a dos personas o cosas) either (of them); (— a más de dos cosas) any one; (— a más de dos personas) anybody, anyone

¿cuál de los dos? — cualquiera which one? — either (of them)

cualquiera de los dos es capaz de hacerlo either (one) of them could do it

pregúntaselo a cualquiera ask anybody o anyone (you like)

¿puedo elegir cualquiera? can I choose any one (I like)?

cualquiera + QUE:

cualquiera que elijas va a ser mejor que éste whichever (one) you choose, it'll be better than this one, any one you choose will be better than this one

cualesquiera que hayan sido sus motivos whatever his motives may have been

2 ( iró)

(nadie): ¡a ti cualquiera te entiende! I just don't understand you!

¡cualquiera sabe dónde lo habrá puesto! heaven knows where he's put it!

¡cualquiera se atreve! I don't think anybody would dare!

cualquiera³

feminine

( pey)

una cualquiera a floozy o tart ( colloq pej)

cualquiera⁴

masculine

un cualquiera a nobody

* * *

cualquiera 1 (pl
◊ cualesquiera or (crit) cualquiera) adjetivo [ see also note under cualquier] any;

en cualquier momento (at) any time;
cualquier cosa/persona anything/anyone;
en cualquier lado anywhere;
de cualquier forma que se haga whichever way you do it;
lo voy a hacer de cualquiera forma I'm going to do it anyway;
es un mercenario cualquiera he's nothing but a mercenary
■ pronombre ( refiriéndose — a dos personas o cosas) either (of them);

(— a más de dos personas) anybody, anyone;
(— a más de dos cosas) any one;
◊ ¿cuál de los dos? — cualquiera which one? — either (of them);

pregúntaselo a cualquiera ask anybody o anyone (you like);
cualquiera que elijas estará bien whichever (one) you choose o any one you choose will be fine
cualquiera 2 sustantivo masculino y femenino: un cualquiera a nobody;
una cualquiera a floozy o (BrE) tart (colloq &
pey)
cualquiera
I adjetivo indef
1 (indefinido, no importa cual) any: coge un libro cualquiera, take any book
2 (corriente, poco importante) ordinary: no es un libro cualquiera, it isn't just any book
II pron indef
1 (persona) anybody: cualquiera sabe cocer un huevo, anybody knows how to boil an egg
cualquiera de los dos es un buen partido, either of them is a good catch
¡cualquiera le dice algo!, nobody dares to say a word to him!
2 (cosa, animal) any one
3 cualquiera que sea, whatever it is
III mf fig pey ser un cualquiera, to be a nobody: es una cualquiera, she's a floosy
' cualquiera' also found in these entries:
Spanish:
acudir
- comida
- error
- obnubilar
- resucitar
- se
- segundón
- segundona
- así
- cualquier
- fulano
- pasar
- rendir
English:
any
- anybody
- Dick and Harry
- either
- infuriating
- one
- sleep around
- Tom
- whichever
- much
- see
- sleep
- whatever

* * *

cualquiera (pl cualesquiera) Note that cualquier is used before singular nouns (e.g. cualquier hombre any man).

♦ adj

any;

no es un escritor cualquiera he's no ordinary writer;

cualquier día vendré a visitarte I'll drop by one of these days;

cualquier cosa vale anything will do;

a cualquier hora any time;

hazlo de cualquier manera do it any old how;

hace las cosas de cualquier manera he does things any old how o carelessly;

de cualquier manera o [m5]modo, no pienso ayudar I've no intention of helping, anyway o in any case;

en cualquier momento at any time;

en cualquier lado/lugar anywhere

♦ pron

anyone;

cualquiera te lo dirá anyone will tell you;

cualquiera haría lo mismo anyone would do the same;

¡cualquiera se lo cree! if you believe that, you'll believe anything!;

que lo haga cualquiera, pero rápido I don't care who does it as long as it's done quickly;

¡cualquiera lo sabe! who knows!;

¡cualquiera se lo come! nobody could eat that!;

¡cualquiera entiende a tu madre! I don't think anyone understands your mother!;

con el mal humor que tiene, ¡cualquiera se lo dice! it's a brave man who would tell her in that mood!;

cualquiera que [persona] anyone who;
[cosa] whatever;
cualquiera que te vea se reiría anyone who saw you would laugh;

cualquiera que sea la razón whatever the reason (may be);

avísame, cualquiera que sea la hora a la que llame let me know, whatever time she calls;

cualesquiera que sean las razones whatever the reasons (may be)

♦ nmf
Pey [don nadie] nobody;
ser un cualquiera to be a nobody

♦ nf
Fam Pey [prostituta] tart
* * *

cualquiera

pron

1 persona anyone, anybody;

un cualquiera a nobody;

¡cualquiera lo comprende! nobody can understand it!;

¡así cualquiera! anyone can do it like that!;

cualquiera diría … you o anyone would think …

2 cosa any (one);

cualquiera que sea o

fuera whichever it is o was

* * *

cualquiera ( cualquier before nouns) adj, pl cualesquiera

1) : any, whichever

cualquier persona: any person

2) : everyday, ordinary

un hombre cualquiera: an ordinary man

cualquiera pron, pl cualesquiera

1) : anyone, anybody, whoever

2) : whatever, whichever

* * *

cualquiera¹ adj any

dame un periódico cualquiera give me any newspaper

cualquier fin de semana any weekend

cualquier cosa anything

cualquier día de éstos one of these days

cualquier otro anyone else

en cualquier sitio anywhere

cualquiera² pron

1. (cualquier persona) anyone

cualquiera sabría contestar esa pregunta anyone could answer that question

2. (entre dos) either / either one

cualquiera de esos dos destornilladores me servirá either of those two screwdrivers will do

3. (entre varios) any / any one

coge cualquiera take any one

Spanish-English dictionary > cualquiera
4 Artificial Intelligence

   1) Programs and the Complexity of Human Mental Processes

   In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)

   2) Artificial Intelligence Is an Engineering Discipline

   Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)

   3) A Sceptical View of Artificial Intelligence

   Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inﬂated predictions....

   When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)

   4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually

   Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the Program

   Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)

   6) The Meaning of a Symbolic Description

   What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   7) The Principle of Artificial Intelligence

   [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)

   8) Artificial Intelligence Recognizes the Need for Knowledge in Its Systems

   The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)

   9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form

   The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)

    10) There Are Many Types of Reasoning

   There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:

    Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins ﬂy? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can ﬂy, so robins probably can ﬂy."

    Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)

    11) Programs Are Beginning to Do Things That Critics Have Asserted to Be Impossible

   Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)

    12) The Synthesis of Man and Machine

   Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)

    13) The Thesis of Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI)

   The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)

    14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation

   It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)

    15) Four Kinds of Artificial Intelligence

   We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.

   ♦ Nonpsychological AI

   Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.

   ♦ Weak Psychological AI

   Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.

   ♦ Strong Psychological AI

... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)

   ♦ Suprapsychological AI

   Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)

    16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts

   Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)

    17) Form and Content Are Not Fundamentally Different

   Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System

   Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence

   The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.

   The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)

    20) Mathematical Logic Provides the Basis for Theory in AI

   The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....

   AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)

    21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions

   In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)

    22) Definitions of Artificial Intelligence

   Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)

    23) The Computer Can Not Be a Model of the Mind

   Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)

    24) Computers Will Not Always Be Inferior to Human Brains

   The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

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